Encyclopaedia on India

Ancient Indian armies employed a diverse arsenal, including swords and daggers crucial for close combat. Sharply edged swords and deadly daggers enhanced a warrior’s effectiveness. Archery was also vital, serving as primary offensive weapons, enabling soldiers to adapt to varied combat situations. Prominent among the ranged weaponry was the sarvatobhadra, a formidable machine designed to hurl stones in all directions, earning it the alternate name bhumirika yantra. Similarly, the bahumukha , a fortified tower on military installations, enabled archers to unleash arrows from multiple angles while being shielded by leather covers. The ingenuity of ancient Indian warfare extended to machines like the parjanynka, specifically designed to extinguish fires, showcasing the strategic foresight of military commanders. Weapons were not restricted to swords and bows alone; the arsenal included axes of varying sizes, the spear and trident (trishul), the mace, javelins, and clubs. Unique weapon...

In ancient India, the philosophical constructs that shaped societal norms and political governance were profound. Central to this discourse was the concept of Dharma, a guiding principle that dictated the moral and ethical duties of individuals, particularly kings. The king, as the embodiment of Rajadharma , was perceived as the protector of Dharma, charged with the responsibility to promote virtues such as goodness and religiousness among his subjects. This philosophical framework mandated that the ruler extend equal patronage to all religions, fostering a climate of inclusivity and mutual respect. The king's adherence to Dharma was not merely a personal commitment but a societal expectation, enforced through appointed officers known as dharmamahamatras and vinayasthitisthapakas. These officials played vital roles in monitoring the king's actions and ensuring that the principles of morality and justice permeated the social order. The king’s life was thus envisaged as one of...

Ujjain, often referred to as the "City of Temples," is one of India’s oldest cities, located in the Malwa Plateau Region of Madhya Pradesh. Situated on the eastern bank of the Shipra River, this historic city serves as the administrative center of the Ujjain District and Division. With its rich cultural heritage and spiritual significance, Ujjain holds a special place in India’s historical narrative. Historical Significance The history of Ujjain traces back to ancient times, with references found in Hindu mythology and texts. The city became a prominent temple town as early as the Iron Age, rooted in an agrarian society. Around the 5th century BC, it transformed into a vital center for administration and politics. Ujjain was ruled by several dynasties, including the Haihayas, Mauryas, Satvahanas, Guptas, and Paramaras, showcasing a rich tapestry of governance through the ages. In the medieval period, it fell under the control of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughals. ...

The coins of the Pratihara Empire, particularly those associated with the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, represent a significant stage in the evolution of currency in early medieval India. This extensive period, approximately between AD 600 and 1000, is characterized by an elaborate and well-regulated currency system that arose in response to agricultural revenues and military needs. Inscriptional evidence indicates that there was a systematic approach to currency regulation, ensuring the Pratihara coins remained in circulation for an extraordinary duration. The longevity of the Pratihara coinage is remarkable; it reflects a vibrant economy where currency served not only local transactions but also facilitated trade with external markets. Coins from this era show a notable survival rate, suggesting that the volume of exchange transactions was substantial, potentially surpassing that of previous periods, including the Gupta era. Archaeological findings corroborate that the circulation of ...

Panchala, located in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab within the upper Gangetic plain of South Asia, was a powerful state that greatly influenced ancient India’s political landscape. It rose to prominence during the Vedic period, emerging as the second major political center after the Kuru Kingdom. The region was a hub of cultural and educational progress, home to notable Vedic schools such as the Shaunaka and Taittiriya traditions. During the Vedic era, Panchala was characterized by the presence of five notable clans: the Krivis, Turvashas, Keshins, Srinjayas, and Somakas. These clans played a pivotal role in both governance and military endeavours, with historical texts like the Mahabharata and the   Puranas documenting their contributions. The most illustrious member of the Somaka clan was King Drupada, whose daughter, Draupadi, became an essential figure in the epic narrative through her marriage to the Pandavas. This period ultimately reflected the dynamism of Panchala, which thrived...